How is the Puzzle Coming Together? Reflection, Observation and Recording
From From Birth For Life
ELCC practitioners regularly assess and evaluate the progress of the children in their care, the success of a particular program or technique, and even their own work. They may use one or several evaluation tools to inform their work, whether an informal reflection in a journal, a running record of an individual child or a simple checklist to assess the child care setting.
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Observation and recording
Used regularly, the observation and recording cycle is a powerful tool for practitioners, because it links their knowledge of developmental milestones with techniques for building new skills and abilities. Observation and recording can be used to evaluate children’s behaviour and development. It can also be used to evaluate programmes, specific coaching techniques, or to identify staff development needs (Epstein, Schweinhart, Debruin-Parecki, & Robin, 2004; Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). Many different observation and recording techniques are available, such as anecdotal records, running records, checklists and portfolios.
There are some general issues to consider when choosing an observation and recording technique. The first is reliability, or the consistency of a measurement. A reliable technique will give similar results when used by different evaluators if the child is assessed repeatedly within a very short period of time (Epstein et al., 2004). Using more reliable measures helps ensure that children are evaluated based on the same criteria each time. The second key characteristic of an observation and recording tool is validity, which is whether the tool measures the concept being assessed (Epstein et al., 2004; Mindes, 2007). For example, recording everything a child says during outdoor play is not a valid tool for evaluating motor development. Taking note of certain behaviours – jumping, skipping, and balancing – would be a more valid assessment of the child’s physical abilities. Using highly valid measures ensures that children are evaluated using the most appropriate criteria for each skill. It is important to note that each observation and recording technique varies in the degree of reliability and validity depending on the way it is used.
Regular and repeated observation and recording in varied settings helps provide a well-rounded picture of a child’s growth (Epstein et al., 2004). For example, in order to learn about a child’s level of interest in shared reading, a single observation may not be sufficient. A better indicator is the child’s interest in books, storytelling, and literacy-related play, observed over a month-long period. Observers should be fairly familiar with age-appropriate development and sensitive to cultural and linguistic diversity (Scott-Little & Niemeyer, 2001). If they are informed about the developmental progression, they will watch for behaviours at the appropriate time (e.g., cooing at one month and babbling at three months). Individual observers capture a unique snapshot of behaviour, and each observational technique provides different types of information (Epstein et al., 2004). Therefore, having multiple observers using different tools helps create a more complete picture of the child.
One advantage to observation and recording tools is that they are highly flexible and non-intrusive. Children can be observed during activities, transitions or mealtimes without interference from the observer. A second advantage is that observation and recording is open-ended. You can choose to focus on a small set of behaviours or you can look at the larger picture and take note of all observed behaviours. Each type of observation contributes to a better understanding of the child.
There are some limitations to observation and recording techniques. Personal beliefs and individual biases can influence the behaviours observed, the style of observation, the information recorded and the interpretation. Practitioners must ensure that beliefs or biases about different cultures (e.g., child rearing techniques, language, religion) or about individual characteristics (e.g., relationship with the child or the parent) do not influence their observations or their records (Mindes, 2007). Another limitation of observation and recording techniques is that children’s behaviour can be changed by the presence of an observer. For example, a child may talk coherently with peers, but may be too shy to speak in the presence of an adult. These factors should be kept in mind when reviewing and interpreting the recordings from observations.
Anecdotal record
Anecdotal recording involves taking detailed notes about a child’s behaviour during a specific event or activity. The information of interest includes when and where the observation took place, and what was said and done by the target child and anyone else involved in the activity. Anecdotal notes are usually written down after the event has been observed, and the observer includes all the details they remember (Beaty, 2002; Mindes, 2007). An ELCC practitioner might be given time during the day to record anecdotal notes about child’s writing in the activity centre (e.g., “Omer ‘wrote’ a letter; four separate lines of scribbles; and traced his name at the bottom.”)
Anecdotal records are open-ended; therefore, they allow the observer to record everything they saw, not just one type of behaviour (Beaty, 2002). Alternatively, the observer may be interested in specific behaviours and can target their observations and records to those behaviours. For example, an ELCC practitioner may be interested in a child’s print knowledge and will record information about her work in the writing centre, but will not include descriptions of her narrative ability. One critical drawback of anecdotal records is the delay between observing an event and writing a record. The delay can result in records that are not always accurate. The observer may forget some of the contextual details or the sequence of events. Another drawback is that information kept in the records can be influenced by personal biases and differences in interpretations (Beaty, 2002). For example, a practitioner’s belief that twins develop and behave similarly, may influence how they observe twins and which behaviours they record. It is important to record observations objectively, without opinions or other comments.
Running record
The running record technique requires advanced planning and effort, but provides a more comprehensive, detailed and accurate account of children’s behaviour (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). A running record is a set of continuous notes in which the observer records everything a child or group of children says and does over a certain period of time (e.g., 10 minutes). In effect, a running record is a detailed transcript of an event. Minute by minute time notations are noted throughout the observation and childrens’ actions, facial expressions and speech are all recorded (Mindes, 2007). A running record begins with the date, time, location and a brief description of the context (e.g., “Sarah and Tom are in the science centre and are weighing different objects on the scale”). Running records include observable facts (e.g., “Sarah puts her doll on the scale and smiles”), not descriptions that rely on inferences (e.g., “Sarah is really enjoying herself”) (Beaty, 2002).
One advantage of running records is that they are in real-time. They are taken during the event, making them more comprehensive and less susceptible to distortion from memory loss. However, this method requires a larger time commitment from staff, because one practitioner may be devoted to recording the actions of a small group of children for an extended period of time. Furthermore, observers must split their time between observing and recording, which makes keeping accurate running records difficult during fast-paced activities or for larger groups.
Play-based assessment
For young children, ages two to four, it is particularly useful to focus on observing play. Children spend much of their time naturally engaged in play; therefore play-based assessment can be used to observe social, cognitive, emotional, motor and language skills (Bordignon & Lam, 2004; Mindes, 2007). During individual and group play, there are opportunities to record children’s use of eye contact, gestures, language and grammar (Mindes, 2007). As with other forms of observational assessment, it is critical that ELCC practitioners are familiar with developmental milestones in order to watch for ageappropriate behaviours.
Checklists, rating scales and frequency lists
Checklists and rating scales are not only used to record information, but they act as guides for observations. A checklist consists of a list of characteristics or behaviours, and the observer watches and writes down the presence or absence of these items (Cohen & Spenciner, 2007). Practitioners can use checklists during regular activities or they may directly ask the child to demonstrate a skill (Scott-Little & Niemeyer, 2001). A checklist can be used to identify areas in need of further attention or more detailed observation. They may also be used to track behaviours over time to monitor developmental changes (Beaty, 2002).
Many commercially-produced checklists are available, but practitioners may have to adapt them to ensure that they are developmentally appropriate and focus on skills that are important to monitor. Alternatively, practitioners may choose to create a checklist on their own that centres on a specific topic of interest (e.g., phonological awareness skills). When creating a checklist it is important to make the items short, descriptive and worded in objective terms (Beaty, 2002). Some possible examples of items to include on an emergent literacy checklist are: Pretend writes with scribbles and pictures; looks at books independently; and points to the title of a book when asked “Where is the title?”
Checklists and rating scales are generally user-friendly for ELCC practitioners, teachers or parents (Beaty, 2002). They are useful for organizing and recording developmental milestones (Epstein et al., 2004), as well as for checking reliability of the observations. Practitioners can use these tools simultaneously to observe an activity. Afterwards they can check each other’s lists to see how well their observations match (Beaty, 2002).
Checklists can produce an incomplete picture of a child’s ability, because they only focus on the presence or absence of a behaviour. Additional pieces of information that could complete the picture include the frequency of the behaviour, whether it was used appropriately, and the child’s mastery level. ELCC practitioners could use anecdotal or running records to obtain this information. They could also use rating scales and frequency lists. Rating scales differ from checklists because they record a range of behaviour such as frequency (e.g., frequently, moderately or rarely) or developmental progress (e.g., no evidence, beginning, developing, skilled), rather than just present or absent. Frequency lists are used to track the exact number of times a behaviour occurs, such as the number of times a child uses a question word (who, what, where, etc.) when asking a question (Mindes, 2007).
Checklists, rating scales and frequency lists may not be sensitive to individual differences (e.g., culture, special needs, etc.) because they are usually designed with one group in mind (e.g., Caucasian middle income). For example, one item on a checklist assessing communication skills may be “Makes eye contact when speaking.” However, for children of Aboriginal background a lack of eye contact may be a sign of politeness and respect, not of poor communication skills (Ball, Bernhardt, & Deby, 2006).
Portfolio
A portfolio is a collection of a child’s work put together by the ELCC practitioner and the child. Portfolios are sometimes called pockets of progress, memory boxes, or literacy folders (Barclay & Breheny, 1994). Portfolios should include samples, but not all, of a child’s work. Prior to creating the portfolio, the selection criteria are clearly laid out, and are used to decide which pieces of work to keep (Epstein et al., 2004; Scott-Little & Niemeyer, 2001). Portfolios can include observational notes or checklists from the practitioner, collections of artwork, samples of writing (both independent and with assistance), and stories dictated by the child. They can also include lists of books read and favourite activities, and transcripts or running records of the child’s activities and conversations (Mindes, 2007). Portfolios may be used to track developmental progress. For example, every child in the class could be asked to write their name and draw a picture of themselves at four points throughout the year. The pictures and writing sample would be included in the portfolio, and parents and practitioners can look back to see the changes occurring in each child’s development.
Portfolio assessments encourage the participation of parents, the child, and the ELCC practitioner (Epstein et al., 2004; Mindes, 2007). Each portfolio differs, because it is a refl ection of the individual child. As a result, children from all backgrounds (e.g., cultural, language, and socio-economic status) are able to participate fully without discrimination. Portfolio assessments also have their limitations because the practitioner and the child choose the items included in the portfolio. The child may only want to include the best work, or the ELCC practitioner may not have the time necessary to sort through and choose the most appropriate items, thereby creating an incomplete picture of the child’s progress. Portfolios may be useful tools for starting dialogue with parents, but their reliability as an assessment tool is still being debated (Browder, Spooner, Algozzine, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Flowers, & Karvonen , 2003).
Using observation and recording
ELCC practitioners can use observation and recording tools to facilitate conversations with parents. For example, they can use anecdotal or running records to describe events from the child’s day to the parents during pick-up time. They may also use anecdotal records, checklists, and rating scales to track growth and inform parents about the child’s strengths and needs. Frequent monitoring is particularly important for children at risk of developmental disorders. Through observation and recording, an ELCC practitioner may notice that one child is reaching the typical developmental milestones slower than expected. If so, they may discuss with parents the need to contact other professionals. For example, if a practitioner is concerned that a child has physical difficulties that are affecting their language or literacy abilities they can suggest that parents consult with the local paediatrician or nurse. They may also refer parents to the local audiologist, speech-language pathologist or psychologist for formal assessment if they are concerned about a child’s physical or cognitive development. Local family service centres (e.g., early years centres, public health) and specialists (e.g., early intervention, literacy or developmental specialists) are good sources of information and can direct practitioners to the appropriate professional or programme to address a child’s needs. Practitioners can also access websites (e.g., www.caslpa.ca) for information or to find local professionals and programmes. Early identifi cation is critical for effective early intervention and remediation. By working closely with parents and other professionals, ELCC practitioners help support the development of all children.
Self-reflection
Many ELCC practitioners use self-reflection to help them think about their practice and whether there are things that they would like to change. Reflection is an evolving concept, and researchers, theorists and practitioners continue to explore how it is defined and used (Jay & Johnson, 2002). In his book, How We Think, John Dewey (1933) described reflection as, “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends” (p.9). In other words, reflection involves systematically thinking about the origins and consequences of one’s own actions and beliefs. Fifty years later, Donald Schön (1983; 1987) coined the term reflective practice and helped renew interest in reflection as an important characteristic of professional practice. Typically self-evaluation includes describing an event or belief for reflection, evaluating this critically and thinking about which personal beliefs and practices contributed to the event and how others may have approached the situation differently, and integrating new knowledge or techniques into future practice (Jay & Johnson, 2002; Malkani & Allen, 2005).
The reflective practice cycle – description, critical evaluation, and action – may be used as a problem-solving technique (Jay, 1999). After identifying a puzzling event or phenomenon, a practitioner may engage in reflection to identify possible causes and solutions. ELCC practitioners may also use reflection to critically evaluate their own beliefs. Practitioners’ beliefs and goals influence the ELCC centre setting and practitioner-child interactions (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford, & Howes, 2002). Explicitly stating and critically examining the beliefs that guide behaviour may help reinforce evidence-based practices or discredit unfounded biases. Finally, reflection may be used to connect theory and practice. Learning about new theories may introduce alternative perspectives. Or, specific examples from practice may or may not support research theories. ELCC practitioners may incorporate reflection into their practice in a number of ways. They may initiate or participate in action research. This is a critical and thorough inquiry into some aspect of one’s own practice (Ferraro, 2000), which emphasizes actions and focuses on changing behaviours (Valli, 1997). Practitioners may also use knowledge, theories and evidence to initiate and identify the method for change, then examine the results of the change (Valli, 1997). Practitioners use journal writing to track their behaviour and learning over time, to help them reflect on what they know, how they feel, what they have done in the centre, and why they did it (Valli, 1997). They may also use case studies of a real or fictional event that presents a specific problem as a tool for reflecting and discussing possible courses of action they would take and the reasons why (Valli, 1997). Pre-service practitioners who use and practice reflective techniques during training, are more likely to engage in reflection as part of their practice (Malkani & Allen, 2005).
Table 8 presents a sample self-reflective tool focusing
on language and literacy development.
| TABLE 8 | |
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Sample List of Self-Reflective Questions | |
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In order to support and protect each child's communication skills | |
I communicate with children verbally and non-verbally in a style, manner and speed that is appropriate for their developmental level, culture, abilities and personality. | |
I provide opportunities and activities that encourage children to develop their listening and understanding skills. | |
I pay attention to and support children's attempts to communicate. | |
I have frequent conversations with children. | |
I ask children open-ended questions and seek their opinions. | |
I encourage children to use their home language, both in the care situation and at home. | |
I encourage children and families whose home language is different from my own to teach me words, phrases and songs in their language and incorporate these into my program. | |
I provide opportunities and activities where children can express themselves through non-verbal means such as painting and music. | |
| Excerpt from Guide to Self-Reflection, Partners in Quality: Tools for Practitioners in Child Care Settings, CCCF, 2000. |
